Szerző:  Molnár Mónika Nyíregyházi Egyetem  Cím: Az élesztők tradicionális szerepe az európai kultúrában DOI: https://doi.org/10.71066/AANY.2025.12.06 Megjelent: 2025. november Letöltés

Összefoglaló

Az élesztőgombákat az emberiség évezredek óta hasznosítja. Az európai kultúra alapvető élelmiszerei: a bor, a sör és a kenyér élesztővel, elsősorban Saccharomyces cerevisiae felhasználásával készülnek. Ez az áttekintés felidézi az élesztőkkel való találkozásunk kezdeteit, majd tárgyalja a S. cerevisiae eredetével kapcsolatosan kialakult különböző nézőpontokat. Végül a bor-, sör- és kenyérkészítéshez használt modern törzsek és technológiák kialakulásának fő mérföldköveit és jellemzőit tárgyalom. 

Kulcsszavak: élesztőgomba, Saccharomyces cerevisae, bor, sör, kenyér

ABSTRACT

Yeasts have been used by mankind for thousands of years. The staple foods of European culture: wine, beer and bread are made with the use of yeasts, primarily Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This review traces the beginnings of our encounter with yeasts and then discusses the various perspectives that have emerged regarding the origins of S. cerevisiae. Finally, I discuss the main landmarks and characteristics of the development of modern strains and technologies used for wine, beer and bread production. 

FELHASZNÁLT SZAKIRODALOM

Arraz-Otaegui, A., Carretero, L. G., Ramsey, M. N., Fuller, D. Q., and Richter, T. (2018): Archeobotanical evidence reveals the origins of bread 14,400 years ago in the northeastern Jordan. PNAS 115: 7925-7930. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1801071115  
Bai, F-Y., Han, D-Y., Duan, S-F., and Wang, Q-M. (2022): The Ecology and Evolution of the 
Baker's     Yeast     Saccharomyces     cerevisiae.     Genes     (Basel)     13:     230. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes13020230  
Bigey, F., Segond, D., Friedrich, A., et al. (2021): Evidence for Two Main Domestication Trajectories in Saccharomyces cerevisiae Linked to Distinct Bread-Making Processes. Curr Biol 31: 722-732. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.11.016  
Bongaerts, D., DeRoos, J., DeVuyst, L. (2021): Technological and Environmental Features Determine the Uniqueness of Lambic Beer Microbiota and Production Process. 87: e0061221. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00612-21  
Cavalieri, D., McGovern, P. E., Hartl, D. L., Mortimer, R., Polsinelli, M. (2003): Evidence for 
S.     cerevisiae     fermentation     in     ancient     wine.     J     Mol     Evol     57: S226-S232. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00239-003-0031-2  
Chambers, P. J., Borneman, A. R., Varela, C., Cordente, A. G., Bellon, J. R., Tran, T. M. T., Henschke, P. A., and Curtin, C. D. (2015): Ongoing domestication of wine yeast: past, present and future. Aust J Grape Wine Res 21: 642-650. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajgw.12190  
DeRoos, J., DeVuyst, L. (2019): Microbial acidification, alcoholization, and aroma production during spontaneous lambic beer production. J Sci Food Agric 99: 25-38. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.9291  
Dunn, B., Sherlock, G. (2008): Reconstruction of the genome origin and evolution of the hybrid lager yeast Saccharomyces pastorianus. Genome Res 18: 1610-23. https://doi.org/10.1101/gr.076075.108  
Eldarov, M. A., Maldarov, Mardanov, A. V. (2020): Metabolic Engineering of Wine Yeast Strains of Saccharomyces cerevisae. Genes (Basel) 11: 964. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes11090964  
Farag, M. A., Elmassry, M. M., Baba, M., and Friedman, R. (2019): Revealing the constituents of Egypt's oldest beer using infrared and mass spectrometry. Sci Rep 9: 16199. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52877-0  
Fay, J. C., Benavides, J. A. (2005): Evidence for domesticated and wild populations of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. PLoS Genet 1: 66-71. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.0010005  
Gallone, B., Steensels, J., Prahl, T. et al. (2016): Domestication and Divergence of Saccharomyces Beer Yeasts. Cell 166: 1397-1710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2016.08.020  
Gallone, B., Mertens, S., Gordon, J. L., Maere, S., Verstrepen, K. J., Steensels, J. (2018): Origins, evolution, domestication and diversity of Saccharomyces beer yeasts. Curr Opin Biotechnol 49: 148-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2017.08.005  
Gélinas, P. (2010): Mapping Early Patents on Baker's Yeast Manifacture. Comp Rev Food Sci Food Saf 9: 483-497. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2010.00122.x  
Gibson, B. R., Storgårds, E., Krogerus, K., Vidgren, V. (2013): Comparative physiology and fermentation performance of Saaz and Frohberg lager yeast strains and the parental species 
Saccharomyces eubayanus. Yeast 30: 255-66. https://doi.org/10.1002/yea.2960  
Gonzalez, R., Molares, P. (2022): Truth in wine yeast. Microb Biotechnol 15: 1339-1356. https://doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.13848  
Jolly, N. P., Varela, C., and Pretorius, I. S. (2014): Not your ordinary yeast: non-Saccharomyces yeasts in wine production uncovered. FEMS Yeast Res 14: 215-237. https://doi.org/10.1111/1567-1364.12111  
Karabín, M., Jelínek, L., Kotrba, P., Cejnar, R., Dostálek, P. (2018): Enhancing the performance of breewing yeasts. Biotechnol Adv 36: 691-706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2017.12.014  
Katz, S. H., Voigt, M. M. (1986): Bread and Beer: The Early Use of Cereals in the Human Diet. Expedition 28: 23-34. 
Krogerus, K., Magalhães, F., Vidgren, V., Gibson, B. (2017): Nowel breewing yeast hybrids: creation     and     application.     Appl     Microbiol     Biotechnol     101:     65-78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-016-8007-5  
Lahue, C., Madden, A. A., Dunn, R. R., Smukowski Heil, C. (2020): History and Domestication of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in Bread Baking. Front Genet 11: 584718. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2020.584718  
Legras, J-L., Merdinoglu, D., Cornuet, J-M., and Karst, F. (2007): Bread, beer and wine: Sacharomyces cerevisiae diversity reflects human history. Mol Ecol 16: 2091-2102. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03266.x  
Libkind, D., Hittinger, C. T., Valério, E., Goncalves, C., Dover, J., Johnston, M., Goncalves, P., and Sampaio, J. P. (2011): Microbe domestification and the identification of the wild ge-netic stock of the lager-breewing yeast. PNAS 108: 14539-14544. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1105430108  
Liti, G., Carter, D. M., Moses, A. M., et al. (2009): Population genomics of domestic and wild yeasts. Nature 458: 337-341. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07743  
Liu, L., Wang, J., Rosenberg, D., Zhao, H., Lengyel, Gy., Nadel, D. (2018): Fermented beverage and food storage in 13,000 y-old stone mortars at Raqefet Cave, Israel: In-vestigating Natufian ritual feasting. J Archeol Sci Reports 21: 783-793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.08.008  
McGovern, P. E., Glusker, D. L., Exner, L. J., Voigt, M. M. (1996): Neolithic resinated wine. Nature 381: 480-481. https://doi.org/10.1038/381480a0  
McGovern, P. E., Hartung, U., Badler, V. R., Glusker, D. L., and Exner, L. J. (1997): The beginning of winemaking and viniculture in the ancient Near East and Egypt. Expedition 39: 3-21. 
McGovern, P. E., Mirzoian, A., Hall, G. R. (2009): Ancient Egyptian herbal wines. PNAS 106: 7361-7366. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0811578106  
McGovern, P. E., Jalabadze, M., Batiuk, S. et al. (2017): Early Neolithic Wine of Georgia in the     South     Caucasus.     PNAS     114:     E10309-E10318. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1714728114  
Michel, R. H., McGovern, P. E., Badler, V. R. (1992): Chemical evidence for ancient beer. Nature 360: 24. https://doi.org/10.1038/360024b0  
Molnár, M. (2021): Élesztőgombák régóta ismert és újonnan felfedezett élőhelyeken. Acta Academiae Nyiregyhaziensis 6: 349-362. 
Montanari, M. (1996): Éhség és bőség. Az európai táplálkozás kultúrtörténete. Atlantisz Könyvkiadó. Budapest 
Mortimer, R. K. (2000): Evolution and Variation of the Yeast (Saccharomyces) Genome. Genome Res 10: 403-409. https://doi.org/10.1101/gr.10.4.403  
Mortimer, R., Polsinelli, M. (1999): On the origins of wine yeast. Res Microbiol 150: 199-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0923-2508(99)80036-9  
Naumov, G. I., Naumova, E. S., and Sniegowski, P. D. (1998): Saccharomyces paradoxus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae are associated with exudates of North American oaks. Can J 
Microbiol 44: 1045-1050. https://doi.org/10.1139/w98-104  
Nelson, M. (2005): The Barbarian's Bevegare: A History of Beer in Ancient Europe. Routledge, London and New York 
Piperno, D. R., Weiss, E., Holst, I., and Nadel, D. (2004): Processing of wild cereal grains in the Upper Paleolithic revealed by starch grain analysis. Nature 430: 670-673. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02734  
Pretorius, I. S. (2000): Tailoring wine yeast for the new millenium: novel approaches to the ancient art of winemaking. Yeast 16: 675-729. https://doi.org/10.1002/10970061(20000615)16:8<675::AID-YEA585>3.0.CO;2…  
Pretorius, I. S. (2020): Tasting the terroir of wine yeast innovation. FEMS Yeast Res 20: foz084. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsyr/foz084  
Pretorius, I. S. (2022): Vizualizing the next frontiers in wine yeast research. FEMS Yeast Res 22: 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsyr/foac010  
Revedin, A., Aranguren, B., Becattini, B., et al. (2010): Thirty thousand-year-old evidence of plant     food     processing.     PNAS     107:     188815-188819. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1006993107&nbsp;
Samuel, D. (1996a): Archeology of Ancient Egyptian Beer. J Am Soc Brew Chem 54: 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1094/ASBCJ-54-0003&nbsp;
Samuel, D. (1996b): Investigation of Ancient Egyptian Bread Baking and Breewing Methods by Correlative Microscopy. Science 273: 488-90. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.273.5274.488  
Sniegowski, P. D., Dombrowski, P. G., Fingerman, E. (2002): Saccharomyces cerevisae and Saccharomyces paradoxus coexist in a natural woodland site in North America and display different level of reproductive isolation from European conspecifics. FEMS Yeast Res. 
1: 299-306. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1567-1364.2002.tb00048.x  
Stephens, D., and Dudley, R. (2004): The drunken monkey hypothesis. Nat Hist 113: 40-44. 
Vaughan-Martini, A., and Martini, A. (1995): Facts, myths and legends on the prime industrial microorganism. J Ind Microbiol 14: 514-522. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01573967  
Walther, A., Hesselbart, A., Wendland, J. (2014): Genome sequence of Saccharomyces carlsbergensis, the world's first pure culture lager yeast. G3 4: 783-793. https://doi.org/10.1534/g3.113.010090  
Wang, Q-M., Liu, W-Q., Liti, G., Wang, S-A., Bai, F-Y. (2012): Surprisingly diverged populations of Saccharomyces cerevisae in natural environments remote from human acti-vity. Mol Ecol 21: 5404-5417. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2012.05732.x&nbsp;

Szerző:  Molnár Mónika Nyíregyházi Egyetem  Cím: Az élesztők tradicionális szerepe az európai kultúrában DOI: https://doi.org/10.71066/AANY.2025.12.06 Megjelent: 2025. november Letöltés

Összefoglaló

Az élesztőgombákat az emberiség évezredek óta hasznosítja. Az európai kultúra alapvető élelmiszerei: a bor, a sör és a kenyér élesztővel, elsősorban Saccharomyces cerevisiae felhasználásával készülnek. Ez az áttekintés felidézi az élesztőkkel való találkozásunk kezdeteit, majd tárgyalja a S. cerevisiae eredetével kapcsolatosan kialakult különböző nézőpontokat. Végül a bor-, sör- és kenyérkészítéshez használt modern törzsek és technológiák kialakulásának fő mérföldköveit és jellemzőit tárgyalom. 

Kulcsszavak: élesztőgomba, Saccharomyces cerevisae, bor, sör, kenyér

ABSTRACT

Yeasts have been used by mankind for thousands of years. The staple foods of European culture: wine, beer and bread are made with the use of yeasts, primarily Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This review traces the beginnings of our encounter with yeasts and then discusses the various perspectives that have emerged regarding the origins of S. cerevisiae. Finally, I discuss the main landmarks and characteristics of the development of modern strains and technologies used for wine, beer and bread production. 

FELHASZNÁLT SZAKIRODALOM

Arraz-Otaegui, A., Carretero, L. G., Ramsey, M. N., Fuller, D. Q., and Richter, T. (2018): Archeobotanical evidence reveals the origins of bread 14,400 years ago in the northeastern Jordan. PNAS 115: 7925-7930. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1801071115  
Bai, F-Y., Han, D-Y., Duan, S-F., and Wang, Q-M. (2022): The Ecology and Evolution of the 
Baker's     Yeast     Saccharomyces     cerevisiae.     Genes     (Basel)     13:     230. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes13020230  
Bigey, F., Segond, D., Friedrich, A., et al. (2021): Evidence for Two Main Domestication Trajectories in Saccharomyces cerevisiae Linked to Distinct Bread-Making Processes. Curr Biol 31: 722-732. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.11.016  
Bongaerts, D., DeRoos, J., DeVuyst, L. (2021): Technological and Environmental Features Determine the Uniqueness of Lambic Beer Microbiota and Production Process. 87: e0061221. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00612-21  
Cavalieri, D., McGovern, P. E., Hartl, D. L., Mortimer, R., Polsinelli, M. (2003): Evidence for 
S.     cerevisiae     fermentation     in     ancient     wine.     J     Mol     Evol     57: S226-S232. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00239-003-0031-2  
Chambers, P. J., Borneman, A. R., Varela, C., Cordente, A. G., Bellon, J. R., Tran, T. M. T., Henschke, P. A., and Curtin, C. D. (2015): Ongoing domestication of wine yeast: past, present and future. Aust J Grape Wine Res 21: 642-650. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajgw.12190  
DeRoos, J., DeVuyst, L. (2019): Microbial acidification, alcoholization, and aroma production during spontaneous lambic beer production. J Sci Food Agric 99: 25-38. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.9291  
Dunn, B., Sherlock, G. (2008): Reconstruction of the genome origin and evolution of the hybrid lager yeast Saccharomyces pastorianus. Genome Res 18: 1610-23. https://doi.org/10.1101/gr.076075.108  
Eldarov, M. A., Maldarov, Mardanov, A. V. (2020): Metabolic Engineering of Wine Yeast Strains of Saccharomyces cerevisae. Genes (Basel) 11: 964. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes11090964  
Farag, M. A., Elmassry, M. M., Baba, M., and Friedman, R. (2019): Revealing the constituents of Egypt's oldest beer using infrared and mass spectrometry. Sci Rep 9: 16199. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52877-0  
Fay, J. C., Benavides, J. A. (2005): Evidence for domesticated and wild populations of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. PLoS Genet 1: 66-71. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.0010005  
Gallone, B., Steensels, J., Prahl, T. et al. (2016): Domestication and Divergence of Saccharomyces Beer Yeasts. Cell 166: 1397-1710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2016.08.020  
Gallone, B., Mertens, S., Gordon, J. L., Maere, S., Verstrepen, K. J., Steensels, J. (2018): Origins, evolution, domestication and diversity of Saccharomyces beer yeasts. Curr Opin Biotechnol 49: 148-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2017.08.005  
Gélinas, P. (2010): Mapping Early Patents on Baker's Yeast Manifacture. Comp Rev Food Sci Food Saf 9: 483-497. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2010.00122.x  
Gibson, B. R., Storgårds, E., Krogerus, K., Vidgren, V. (2013): Comparative physiology and fermentation performance of Saaz and Frohberg lager yeast strains and the parental species 
Saccharomyces eubayanus. Yeast 30: 255-66. https://doi.org/10.1002/yea.2960  
Gonzalez, R., Molares, P. (2022): Truth in wine yeast. Microb Biotechnol 15: 1339-1356. https://doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.13848  
Jolly, N. P., Varela, C., and Pretorius, I. S. (2014): Not your ordinary yeast: non-Saccharomyces yeasts in wine production uncovered. FEMS Yeast Res 14: 215-237. https://doi.org/10.1111/1567-1364.12111  
Karabín, M., Jelínek, L., Kotrba, P., Cejnar, R., Dostálek, P. (2018): Enhancing the performance of breewing yeasts. Biotechnol Adv 36: 691-706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2017.12.014  
Katz, S. H., Voigt, M. M. (1986): Bread and Beer: The Early Use of Cereals in the Human Diet. Expedition 28: 23-34. 
Krogerus, K., Magalhães, F., Vidgren, V., Gibson, B. (2017): Nowel breewing yeast hybrids: creation     and     application.     Appl     Microbiol     Biotechnol     101:     65-78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-016-8007-5  
Lahue, C., Madden, A. A., Dunn, R. R., Smukowski Heil, C. (2020): History and Domestication of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in Bread Baking. Front Genet 11: 584718. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2020.584718  
Legras, J-L., Merdinoglu, D., Cornuet, J-M., and Karst, F. (2007): Bread, beer and wine: Sacharomyces cerevisiae diversity reflects human history. Mol Ecol 16: 2091-2102. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03266.x  
Libkind, D., Hittinger, C. T., Valério, E., Goncalves, C., Dover, J., Johnston, M., Goncalves, P., and Sampaio, J. P. (2011): Microbe domestification and the identification of the wild ge-netic stock of the lager-breewing yeast. PNAS 108: 14539-14544. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1105430108  
Liti, G., Carter, D. M., Moses, A. M., et al. (2009): Population genomics of domestic and wild yeasts. Nature 458: 337-341. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07743  
Liu, L., Wang, J., Rosenberg, D., Zhao, H., Lengyel, Gy., Nadel, D. (2018): Fermented beverage and food storage in 13,000 y-old stone mortars at Raqefet Cave, Israel: In-vestigating Natufian ritual feasting. J Archeol Sci Reports 21: 783-793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.08.008  
McGovern, P. E., Glusker, D. L., Exner, L. J., Voigt, M. M. (1996): Neolithic resinated wine. Nature 381: 480-481. https://doi.org/10.1038/381480a0  
McGovern, P. E., Hartung, U., Badler, V. R., Glusker, D. L., and Exner, L. J. (1997): The beginning of winemaking and viniculture in the ancient Near East and Egypt. Expedition 39: 3-21. 
McGovern, P. E., Mirzoian, A., Hall, G. R. (2009): Ancient Egyptian herbal wines. PNAS 106: 7361-7366. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0811578106  
McGovern, P. E., Jalabadze, M., Batiuk, S. et al. (2017): Early Neolithic Wine of Georgia in the     South     Caucasus.     PNAS     114:     E10309-E10318. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1714728114  
Michel, R. H., McGovern, P. E., Badler, V. R. (1992): Chemical evidence for ancient beer. Nature 360: 24. https://doi.org/10.1038/360024b0  
Molnár, M. (2021): Élesztőgombák régóta ismert és újonnan felfedezett élőhelyeken. Acta Academiae Nyiregyhaziensis 6: 349-362. 
Montanari, M. (1996): Éhség és bőség. Az európai táplálkozás kultúrtörténete. Atlantisz Könyvkiadó. Budapest 
Mortimer, R. K. (2000): Evolution and Variation of the Yeast (Saccharomyces) Genome. Genome Res 10: 403-409. https://doi.org/10.1101/gr.10.4.403  
Mortimer, R., Polsinelli, M. (1999): On the origins of wine yeast. Res Microbiol 150: 199-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0923-2508(99)80036-9  
Naumov, G. I., Naumova, E. S., and Sniegowski, P. D. (1998): Saccharomyces paradoxus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae are associated with exudates of North American oaks. Can J 
Microbiol 44: 1045-1050. https://doi.org/10.1139/w98-104  
Nelson, M. (2005): The Barbarian's Bevegare: A History of Beer in Ancient Europe. Routledge, London and New York 
Piperno, D. R., Weiss, E., Holst, I., and Nadel, D. (2004): Processing of wild cereal grains in the Upper Paleolithic revealed by starch grain analysis. Nature 430: 670-673. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02734  
Pretorius, I. S. (2000): Tailoring wine yeast for the new millenium: novel approaches to the ancient art of winemaking. Yeast 16: 675-729. https://doi.org/10.1002/10970061(20000615)16:8<675::AID-YEA585>3.0.CO;2…  
Pretorius, I. S. (2020): Tasting the terroir of wine yeast innovation. FEMS Yeast Res 20: foz084. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsyr/foz084  
Pretorius, I. S. (2022): Vizualizing the next frontiers in wine yeast research. FEMS Yeast Res 22: 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsyr/foac010  
Revedin, A., Aranguren, B., Becattini, B., et al. (2010): Thirty thousand-year-old evidence of plant     food     processing.     PNAS     107:     188815-188819. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1006993107&nbsp;
Samuel, D. (1996a): Archeology of Ancient Egyptian Beer. J Am Soc Brew Chem 54: 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1094/ASBCJ-54-0003&nbsp;
Samuel, D. (1996b): Investigation of Ancient Egyptian Bread Baking and Breewing Methods by Correlative Microscopy. Science 273: 488-90. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.273.5274.488  
Sniegowski, P. D., Dombrowski, P. G., Fingerman, E. (2002): Saccharomyces cerevisae and Saccharomyces paradoxus coexist in a natural woodland site in North America and display different level of reproductive isolation from European conspecifics. FEMS Yeast Res. 
1: 299-306. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1567-1364.2002.tb00048.x  
Stephens, D., and Dudley, R. (2004): The drunken monkey hypothesis. Nat Hist 113: 40-44. 
Vaughan-Martini, A., and Martini, A. (1995): Facts, myths and legends on the prime industrial microorganism. J Ind Microbiol 14: 514-522. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01573967  
Walther, A., Hesselbart, A., Wendland, J. (2014): Genome sequence of Saccharomyces carlsbergensis, the world's first pure culture lager yeast. G3 4: 783-793. https://doi.org/10.1534/g3.113.010090  
Wang, Q-M., Liu, W-Q., Liti, G., Wang, S-A., Bai, F-Y. (2012): Surprisingly diverged populations of Saccharomyces cerevisae in natural environments remote from human acti-vity. Mol Ecol 21: 5404-5417. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2012.05732.x&nbsp;